Today Finland is a prosperous and peaceful country considered part of the stable zone of Nordic countries. It has one of the world’s highest average wealth per person, is a significant player within the European Union and eurozone bloc, and regularly ranks at or near the top of the world’s education league tables. Yet, if we go back to the start of the 20th century, we see a very different story. Dominated by the Russian Empire and economically far behind many other European countries, Finland has developed rapidly since then. Yet, the journey would be dramatic, and at times traumatic, as Finland endured war, occupation, and annexation.

Finland is a Nordic country today bordering Sweden, Norway, and Russia. Its population of 5.5 million are mainly concentrated toward the southern end of the country, notably in its capital, Helsinki. Yet, Finland’s geography played a major part in its 20th-century history, in particular its territory within the Arctic Circle and waters including the Baltic Sea, Gulf of Finland, and Gulf of Bothnia. In essence Finland was on the front line of the Second World War and then the Cold War, giving it unique foreign-policy considerations. It is a huge country but is relatively sparsely populated, and much of its territory is wilderness and extremely inhospitable during the winter months. A peninsula, the Karelian Isthmus, separates the southeast of the country with Russia and is close to St. Petersburg. Indeed, the long border and land bridges with Russia are crucial to understanding Finland’s 20th-century history. In keeping with many other of its neighbors in the Baltics, Northern Europe, and in the Nordics, Finland’s path is a combination of its relationship with larger powers and its own agency.

As with so many other European countries, much of Finland’s history is characterized by domination from outside powers. Indeed, Finland was ruled by Sweden as part of Stockholm’s empire between 1150 and 1809, and this influence would have implications running into the 20th century. Swedes made up the majority of the “elite” positions, and tension existed between them and Finns. Nineteenth- and 20th-century Finnish nationalism would manifest itself in several different forms but would include opposition to Swedes, Russians, and other groups. Nevertheless, any tension between Finns and Swedes would ultimately be relatively minor compared to the country’s other battles.

Over the course of almost seven centuries, wedged between one of Europe’s older powers, Sweden, and one of its rising ones, Russia, it is perhaps surprising that Finnish language and culture endured, which is a tribute to its sense of identity. Nevertheless, Finland appears to have links with Russian, Baltic, and Nordic peoples, and the majority of its inhabitants adopted Lutheran Christianity in the reformation. Yet, Finland is culturally unique. In particular, the Finnish language comes from different roots than its neighbors and is in fact in the Uralic family, which also includes Hungarian, Estonian, and some native Russian peoples.

Russia annexed Finland from Sweden in 1809 in the midst of the continental Napoleonic Wars. Russia used this period of tumult to expand its territory and incorporated Finland into its empire as a Grand Duchy, that is to say with some elements of autonomy. These freedoms included the ability to pass its own laws as well as the use of its own currency. Crucially, Finns were not permitted any armed forces, which secured Russia’s hold over the country. Although the 19th century appeared to proceed in a mostly stable fashion, under the surface of Finnish society a new mood of nationalism stirred.